Chapter 1 The Lay of the Land: Chinese and European World Maps
Chinese and European maps displayed divergent and sometimes overlapping mathematical, visual and functional aspects. European maps continued the tradition of Ptolemy, applying the mathematics of heavenly bodies to the Earth’s surface. Each point on Earth was made to correspond with an overlapped grid of latitude and longitude coordinates. In China, while the idea of a spherical Earth and the notions of latitude and longitude (the warp and the wheft) were used in astronomy and astrology, cartographers operated with different notions. Chinese maps assumed the Earth to be square and flat, covered by the canopy of heaven. Respecting certain principles of cartographic drawing, maps ensured accuracy by overlaying a grid specifying distances between points.
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Figures 1.1a and 1.1b Map of the Tracks of Yu Yujitu 禹跡圖 and Map of Chinese and Foreign Lands Huayitu 華夷圖. The Map of the Tracks of Yu consists of 5,110 grids, with each grid approximately 100 li. The original stone was engraved in 1136 CE. These are stone rubbings on two sides of a stone stele. The stele is now in the Forest of Stone Steles Museum in Xi’an, China. Stone rubbings G7821.C3 1136.Y81 and .H8., Geography and Map Division, US Library of Congress, Washington, DC, USA.
Figure 1.2 Luo Hongxian 羅洪先, General Map from the Extended Terrestrial Atlas, Guang yutu 廣輿圖, 1566 edition. Harvard-Yenching Library of the Harvard College Library, Harvard University, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
Figure 1.3 Muhammad al-Idrisi, Map of the World, 1154, Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq, also known as Carta Rogeriana. Konrad Miller, Geography and Map Division, G3200 1154.I3 1928, US Library of Congress, Washington, DC, USA.
Figure 1.4 World Map According to Ptolemy’s Conic Projection. Original in Codex Vaticanus Urbinas Graecus 82, VAB, Vatican City. Parchment 575 × 418 mm. Probably assembled by Maximus Planudes in Constantinople ca. 1300; later in possession of Palla Strozzi (1372–1462), then with Federico da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino. This was effectively the first Ptolemaic world map in Europe.
Figure 1.5 Gerard Mercator, Nova et aucta orbis terrae descriptio ad usum navigantium emendate accommodata (New and Improved Description of the Terrestrial Globe, Adapted to the Use for Navigation), 1569. Département Cartes et plans, GE A-1064 (RES), BNF, Paris, France.
Figure 1.6 Muhammad al-Idrisi, representation of China from the Map of the World, 1154, Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq. (Representation of China in the upper right corner). Konrad Miller, Geography and Map Division G3200 1154.I3, US Library of Congress 1928, Washington, DC, USA.
Chapter 2 Translation and Treason: The Demarcation Controversy and the First Translations of Maps of China in Europe
Why were Chinese world maps translated in early modern Europe? This chapter answers this question by focusing on the story of the 1584 map of China Chinae, olim Sinarum Regio nova descriptio by Abraham Ortelius. This was the first popular and widely disseminated map of China and it was based on a translation from Chinese sources. In discussing this map, the chapter will cover the period between 1550 and 1584. It will argue that the European cartographic interest in China was motivated by the rivalry between Spain and Portugal around the controversy about a line stretching from pole to pole demarcating their territories in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Figure 2.1 Abraham Ortelius, Chinae olim Sinarum regionis, nova descriptio auctore Ludovico Georgio (New Description of the Region of China Authored by Ludovico Georgio). In Abraham Ortelius, Theatrum orbis terrarum, Atwerpen, Christophe Plantin, 1584. Département Cartes et plans GE DD-4894, BNF, Paris, France.
Figure 2.2 Abraham Ortelius, Regni hispaniae (Kingdom of Spain), 1570. Département Cartes et plans GE DD-251 (RES), BNF, Paris, France. Comparison between the original 1570 edition and the newer edition sent by Ortelius to Spain.
Figure 2.3 Herrera y Tordesillas, Descripcion de las Yndias Ocidentales, 1601. John Carter Brown Library, Brown University, shelfmark B601 H564h /1-SIZE, accession 01808. This printed map is the image reproduced in the book. For the corrected identification and its relationship to Velasco’s manuscript maps, see Addenda and Corrigenda.
Figure 2.4 Abraham Ortelius, Maris Pacifici (quod vulgo Mar del Zur) (Of the Pacific Sea, Which the People Call Sea of the South). From Theatrum orbis terrarum, Antwerpen 1589. Département Cartes et plans GE D-15636, BNF, Paris, France.
Figure 2.5 Historical and Topographical Map of China (Gujin xingsheng zhi tu 古今形勝之圖), 1555. Filipinas MP-5 (Author’s highlights), courtesy of Archivo General de Indias, Sevilla, Spain. Highlighted portions indicate where inscriptions are made on the map. These fall in the following categories: placenames, the points of the compass, the title of the map, and explanations of the squares marking the capitals of provinces.
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Figures 2.6a and 2.6b Left: General Map of China (Yudi zongtu 輿地總圖) from Extended Terrestrial Atlas (Guang yutu 廣輿圖) by Luo Hongxian 羅洪先, 1555? (rotated). Library of Congress, Washington, DC, USA. Right: Ortelius, Chinae, Antwerp, 1584. Département Cartes et plans. BNF, Paris, France.
Figure 2.7 Bartolomeu Velho, detail from his Chart of Asia, 1561. Museo Galileo, Florence, Italy.
Figure 2.8 Map of Myriad Countries of the Earth, 坤輿萬國全圖, by Matteo Ricci, Li Zhizao 李之藻, et al., 1602. Courtesy of the James Ford Bell Library, University of Minnesota, Minnesota, USA. The highlighted portion shows the extent of the Spanish dominions as opposed to the Portuguese. China, the Philippines, and the Moluccas are firmly inside the demarcation that favored Portugal.
Chapter 3 Translating the West: Matteo Ricci’s World Map and Quandaries about European Identity in Late Ming China
Focusing approximately on the period 1584-1610, this chapter addresses the contrasting question of the translation of European world maps in China. The chapter argues that the creation of Matteo Ricci’s world map, which was based on European and Chinese sources with text in Chinese characters and the use of Chinese printing methods and materials, was motivated by the need to create a new identity for Europeans in China; Matteo Ricci’s world map created “The Great West” as a geographical and cultural category. The chapter also explores the intricacies of cartographic translation and the back and forths between China and Europe, covering the activities of Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Neroni
Figure 3.1 Map of Countries in the Western Regions of the Han, Han Xiyu zhuguo tu 漢西域諸國圖, from Fozu tongji 佛祖統紀 (General Records of the Founders of Buddhism), 32: 6. Courtesy of Harvard-Yenching Library of the Harvard College Library, Harvard University, Cambridge MA, USA. In the lower left corner, the map depicts the Western Sea 西海 and the Great Qin (Da Qin 大秦) – the Roman Empire of the East.
Figures 3.2a and 3.2b Left side (a): Letter from Pope Sixtus V to the Wanli Emperor. The Chinese versions composed by Matteo Ricci, Chinois 5061, BNF, Paris, France. Right side (b): The Latin translation of the papal letter from Sixtus V. ARSI, Jap. Sin. 125 68r, Rome, Italy.
Figure 3.3 Terrestrial and celestial globes by Matteo Neroni. Collezioni Speciali, Biblioteca Nazionale, Rome. The celestial globe features a cartouche indicating the date: Anno Jobel 1575. Photograph by the author.
Figure 3.4 Terrestrial globe by Matteo Neroni (selection). Collezioni Speciali, Biblioteca Nazionale, Rome, Italy. The map of Italy names Neroni’s birthplace the village of Peccioli and the larger town of Volterra to which Peccioli was subjected administratively. Photograph by the author.
Figure 3.5a and 3.5b Left (a): Terrestrial globe. Collezioni Speciali, Biblioteca Nazionale, Rome. Photograph by the author. Right (b): Ortelius, Chinae, 1584. Département Cartes et plans GE DD-4894, BNF, Paris, France.
Figures 3.6a and 3.6b Left (a): Terrestrial globe. Collezioni Speciali, Biblioteca Nazionale, Rome. Photograph by the author. Right (b): Matteo Ricci & Li Zhizao, Map of Myriad Countries, colored edition (1608). Nanjing Palace Museum Nanjing Bowuyuan 南京博物院, Nanjing, P.R.C. Photograph by the author. The Neroni globe and Ricci’s world map share a common depiction of Africa and equivalent naming of the oceans.
Figures 3.7a and 3.7b Top (a): Yudi shanhai quantu 輿地山海全圖 (Complete Terrestrial Map of the Mountains and the Seas) in Zhang Huang 章潢, Tushubian 圖書編 (Collection of Maps), 1613 [1584]. Harvard-Yenching Library of the Harvard College Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. Based on a lost copy of Matteo Ricci’s 1584 world map, this map names all the continents except Europe. The Western Ocean Da Xiyang 大西洋 is also absent. Bottom (b): Shanhai yudi quantu 山海輿地全圖 from Feng Yingjing 馮應京, Yueling guangyi 月令廣義 (Monthly Ordinances). Harvard-Yenching Library of the Harvard College Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. This map, based on a now lost copy of the 1600 Nanjing version of Ricci’s world map, is the first to list the name of Europe and the Western Ocean. The map was later widely disseminated as part of the popular Ming encyclopedia Sancai tuhui 三才圖會 (1609).
Figure 3.8 Matteo Ricci, Li Zhizao, and Zhang Wentao, Kunyu wanguo quantu. Comparison of different versions, selection, and design by the author. From left (1): James Ford Bell Library Minnesota, altered 1602 version. The name of Portugal appears as Boerduwaer, and the explanatory note shows marks of deletion from woodblocks. (2): Miyagi Prefectural Library, modified original version, before tampering. Portugal appears as Fulangji, explanatory note intact. Bottom: (3): Soongsil Christian Museum Korea, Liangyi Xuanlan tu. Portugal was rendered as Boerduheer; the label was modified to reflect the name given by Muslims as Fulangji. (4): Nanjing Palace Museum, colored 1608 version produced in the Beijing palace based on unadulterated original print. Portugal appears as Fulanji without other explanatory notes.
Chapter 4 Material Matters: The 1603 World Map by Matteo Ricci and Li Yingshi and the Manchu Appropriation of Chinese and Western Cartographies
Matteo Ricci’s entry into China at the end of the sixteenth century coincided with broader changes in the regional power dynamics of East Asia. Ming China was entering a period of dynastic decay. It was plagued by economic problems and pressed by the Manchus, a peoples from beyond the Great Wall. Chapter 4, covering the turbulent Ming-Qing inter-dynastic transition period between 1610 and 1644, tells the story of a version of Matteo Ricci’s world map, which was appropriated by the Manchus as they were forming their own identity and were planning to invade China. The chapter shows that the Manchus, coming in contact with Ricci’s world map created a practice of translation which they then applied to Chinese maps.
Figure 4.1 Map of Observing the Mysteries of the Heaven and the Earth, Liangyi xuanlan tu 兩儀玄覽圖, 1603. Li Yingshi 李應試, Matteo Ricci 利瑪竇 et al., Liaoning Provincial Museum 辽宁省博物馆, Shenyang, China.
Figure 4.2 Map of Observing the Mysteries of the Heaven and the Earth, Liangyi xuanlan tu 兩儀玄覽圖 detail. The bottom corner of the eighth roll (left side of the map) of the Shengyang version of Liangyi xuanlan tu 兩儀玄覽圖. This area, representing the Southern Hemisphere, was damaged and later repaired. An artisan had applied paper paste and, after it dried, redrew the meridians to give the impression of continuity. Further damage to the map reveals the discrepancy between the two layers. Li Yingshi 李應試, Matteo Ricci 利瑪竇 et. al., Liangyi xuanlan tu 兩儀玄覽圖, 1603, Liaoning Provincial Museum 辽宁省博物馆, Shenyang, China.
Figure 4.3 Manchu translation of the cosmological theory in a cartouche placed near the line of the equator on Map of Observing the Mysteries of the Heaven and the Earth, Liangyi xuanlan tu 兩儀玄覽圖. Li Yingshi 李應試, Matteo Ricci 利瑪竇 et. al., 1603, Liaoning Provincial Museum 辽宁省博物馆, Shenyang, China.
Figures 4.4a and 4.4b Examples of Manchu inscriptions on Map of Observing the Mysteries of the Heaven and the Earth, Liangyi xuanlan tu 兩儀玄覽圖. Yingshi 李應試, Matteo Ricci 利瑪竇 et. al., 1603, Liaoning Provincial Museum 辽宁省博物馆, Shenyang, China.
Figure 4.5 Analysis of the Manchu script written on Map of Observing the Mysteries of the Heaven and the Earth, Liangyi xuanlan tu 兩儀玄覽圖. Li Yingshi 李應試, Matteo Ricci 利瑪竇 et al., 1603, Liaoning Provincial Museum 辽宁省博物馆, Shenyang, China.
Figure 4.6 Map of Dengzhou 鄧州 from Cartographic Diary of the Embassy to the Ming Court (朝天記地圖) by Chong Tuwon, 1630. Courtesy of the Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, Seoul, South Korea. Chong Tuwon authored this volume of maps of places near the Bohai Sea between China and Korea. The map of Dengzhou from this volume was made in the style of Chinese cartography, which was prevalent around the time Chong met Rodrigues.
Figure 4.7 Synthetic map of the Great Ming, Da Ming hunyi tu 大明混一圖. Original in First Historical Archives, Beijing, reprint in Zhongguo Gudai Ditu Ji 中国古代地图集 (Beijing, 1990). Facsimile from the Shanghai Museum of Navigation 航海博物馆, Shanghai, China. Photograph by the author. This section of the map of the Great Ming depicts the western portion of Korea and displays the Manchu place-name transliterations on affixed labels. In some places, the labels have detached over time, revealing the original Chinese text underneath.
Chapter 5 At the Limits of China: Translating Borders between China and the West
Chapter 5 examines how Chinese and European notions of borders shaped cartographic exchange. It follows European cartographers as they used Chinese sources to define China’s boundaries and considers how these representations influenced Qing cartography and European views of the empire.
Figure 5.1 Olahus Magnus, Carta Marina, Antonio Lafreri, 1572. National Library of Congress, Washington, DC, USA. Top: View of the entire map, focused on northern countries. Bottom: Selection showing an example of the demarcation between two state entities.
Figure 5.2 Nicolas Sanson d’Abbeville, L’Europe, Pierre Mariette, 1651. Département Cartes et plans GE DD-2987 (150), BNF, Paris, France. Top: General view of the map. Bottom: Selection showing the divisions between Spain, France, and Italy.
Figure 5.3 Nicolas Sanson d’Abbeville, L’Asie, Paris, 1652. Département Cartes et plans GE D-11857, BNF, Paris, France.
Figure 5.4 Nicolas Sanson d’Abbeville, Kingdom of China, from L’Asie, Paris, 1658 edition. Département Cartes et plans GE D-11857, BNF, Paris, France.
Figure 5.5 Comparison of Map of Siberia by Nicolae Milescu Spatharius and Tabual Geographica Orientis by Antoine Thomas. Top: Nicolae Milescu Spatharius, Map of Siberia, courtesy of Houghton Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. Bottom: Antoine Thomas, Tabula Geographica Orientis, 1690, Jap. Sin. 110, ARSI, Rome, Italy.
Figure 5.6 Jean Baptiste Bourguignon D’Anville, Grand Tartary According to the Novel Observations of the Gentlemen of the Academy of Sciences (La grande Tartarie suivant les nouvelles observations de Mess. de l’Académie royale des sciences, augmentées de nouveau), Paris, 1714. Département Cartes et plans GE DD-2987 (7359), BNF, Paris, France.
Figure 5.7 Jean Baptiste Bourguignon D’Anville, Most General Map that Comprises China, Chinese Tartary, and Tibet (Carte la plus generale et qui comprend La Chine, La Tartarie Chinoise, et le Tibet), Paris, 1734. Département Cartes et plans, BNF, Paris, France.
Figure 5.8 Huanhai quantu 環海全圖 (Complete Map of the Circular Ocean), from Hai jiang yang jie xing shi quan tu 海疆洋界形勢全圖 (Coastal maps of China), c. 1787. Geography and map division G7822.C6A5 1801.H31, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, USA.
Figure 5.9 Li Mingche 李明徹, The Unified Latitude and Longitude General Map of the Ten-Thousand-Year Great Qing Empire, Da Qing wannian yitong jingwei yutu 大清萬年一統經緯輿圖, c.1820. Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen Cod. Ms. Mapp. 34, Göttingen, Germany.
Figure 5.10 Julius Klaproth, New Map of Asia (Nouvelle carte de L’Asie), Paris, 1829. Département Cartes et plans GE C-8068, BNF, Paris, France.
Chapter 6 China’s Place in the World: Sino-Western Maps and the Transformation of Chinese Cartography
Much of the book’s narrative is dedicated to trace the complex interactions between China and Europe since the sixteenth century, but how did these interactions affect Chinese cartographers and Chinese cartographic practice? The focus of this chapter moves to the perspective of Chinese cartographers, their attitudes and uses of world maps, as well as hybrid world maps created using Western techniques and Chinese elements. The chapter demonstrates that Sino-Western world maps prompted different responses, ranging from rejection to enthusiasm and adoption. Chinese cartographers incorporated elements from these maps, cited them in their own work. Beginning with the Qianlong period of the Qing, cartographers started working with Western cartographic techniques in producing new types of maps.
Figure 6.1 Cao Junyi, Complete Map of Human Vestiges and Routes within the Nine Border Zones and the Ten Thousand Countries under Heaven, Da Ming jiubian wanguo renji lucheng quantu 大明九邊萬國人跡路程全圖. Cataloged as Map of China and Neighboring Countries, Maps and charts 60875. (11.), British Library, London, UK.
Figure 6.2 Ferdinand Verbiest 南懷仁, Complete Map of the Earth (Kunyu quantu 坤輿全圖), 1674. Département Cartes et plans GE A-1027 (RES), BNF, Paris, France. Verbiest’s map was an important work of reference for Qing cartographers.
Figure 6.3 Lü Fu 呂撫, Map of the Three Powers, Sancai yiguan tu 三才一貫圖, 1722. Geography and Map Division G7820 1722.L8, Washington Library of Congress, Washington, DC, USA.
Figure 6.4 Zhuang Tingfu, The Great Qing Dynasty World Map of Tribute-Bearing Countries with Spherical Coordinates, Past and Present, Da Qing tongshu zhigong wanguo jingwei diqiushi 大清統屬職貢萬國經緯地球式, 1794. Library of Congress, DC. G3200 1794.Z5, Washington, DC, USA.
Figure 6.5 Ye Zipei 葉子佩 and Liu Yan 六嚴, Great Map of the Whole Earth at a Glance, Dadi quanqiu yilan zhitu 大地全球一覽之圖, 1851. Collection of the National Palace Museum, Taipei. This map is the culmination of considering information from both Chinese and Western maps. Top: Northern hemisphere. Bottom: Detail.
Epilogue The Archipelago
The Epilogue explores the transformative impact of cartographic exchanges between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. The book adopted a "diving bell" approach to uncover the deep connections between Chinese and Western cartographic traditions, arguing that translation played a crucial role in shaping world geography. These exchanges led to hybrid maps and a global Renaissance, illustrating that knowledge was shared reciprocally. The chapter underscores the diverse motivations behind map translations, from territorial disputes to identity construction, and how these interactions influenced the perception of China and the West. Ultimately, the book reveals how these exchanges contributed to the modern world map and the global perspective we share today.
Figure E.1 Comparison of two versions of The Blue Marble. NASA AS17–148-22727. Left: Original image. Right: Popularized, cropped and rotated version.
